Understanding the child’s experience

The short- and long-term impact of parental substance misuse on children can be significant. Understanding the child’s experiences is central when working with parental substance misuse.

It is important to bear in mind that children may know a great deal about their parent’s use of substances, despite best efforts to keep things hidden. Even very young children may know that ‘something’ is going on and can be sensitive to the shifts in their parent’s presentation, such as the changing sights and smells of the house or how their parents are responding to them and each other (Houmoller et al, 2011).

It may be difficult to directly ask the child about their parent’s substance misuse. The parent might not want you to, or might believe the child knows nothing, or the child might feel worried about telling a professional. In these situations, a good starting point is to assess what a ‘typical’ day or week looks like for the child.

For example, you could talk about who they see, what happens, who looks after them or who they go to for help if they need something or are scared. These kinds of questions may help to unpick what the child’s experiences are, and how safe and stable they feel home life is.

Tips for working with children

Below are recommendations for how to approach working with children affected by parental substance misuse. These recommendations have been developed from studies where researchers talked to children about what they wanted from professionals.

• Use a non-judgmental approach: Studies show that children can experience discrimination or stigma from professionals as a result of their parent’s substance misuse (Muir et al, 2022). Children are also very likely be aware of the shame and stigma that surrounds parental substance misuse. Professionals need to approach these conversations mindful of the language they use about substance misuse and the child’s parents/carers and the assumptions they may have made about the child’s experiences.
• Provide stability and consistency: Children affected by parental substance misuse may have experienced a great deal of inconsistency in their lives and may therefore be particularly affected by things like staff turnover. Aiming to ensure a stable and consistent professional figure in a child’s life is important. To create this stable relationship, there are important things a social worker can do such as:

• • Booking visits ahead of time, making the child aware of the location and time and giving notice if things change and the visit is not possible.
  • Not over-promising; ensuring that you follow through on what you say you will do (eg making a referral).
  • Being honest about who you share information with and why, and what might happen as a result.
  • Being clear about your role in their life, how long you might be in their life for and what might happen when you are no longer their social worker.
  • Ensuring a managed ending which the child can prepare for.

• Use professionalism: Children value professionals who are non-confrontational in their approach (O’Connor et al, 2014; Houmoller et al, 2011) and who do not ‘quiz’ the child about their parent’s substance misuse (Muir et al, 2022). Children want professionals who are reliable and proactive in responding to disclosures made by them (Muir et al, 2022). Children also need to know that professionals are trustworthy and safe and that the information they share is safe. Some information children tell professionals may need to be written down or shared with other people, which requires professionals to be transparent about information sharing.
• Listen and understand: It is important that children are listened to, respected and believed. Children value flexibility in how professionals communicate and engage with them (Muir et al, 2022). Some children particularly value being able to just ‘sit’ in a safe place with a professional (eg in a teacher’s office) and not necessarily talk about anything. Children also note that the most supportive professionals tend to have a good understanding of parental substance misuse (Houmoller et al, 2011). If children have additional needs around communication, social workers need to give further consideration to ensure they are listened to and understood and ensure that their approach is appropriate to the child’s development and needs. Inform Children users can find additional information and advice can on this in these case studies from a specialist team on working with disabled children.
• Acknowledge and respect the child’s expertise: Children are experts in their own lives. Children may also have considerable strategies already in place to protect themselves and their siblings. These might include having a safe family member or friend to talk to or stay with, having a safe space in the house away from their parents, writing in journals or practising mindfulness (Muir et al, 2022). Children may also have coping strategies which are potentially harmful, for example, isolating themselves (Velleman and Templeton, 2007). When working with children, it is important to respect their expertise and potentially build on their protective strategies if it is appropriate to do.
• Support the whole family: Children report wanting practical and emotional support for them and their family. Practical support, such as financial support and help with day-to-day issues, may immediately improve a child’s life. Emotional support can be provided through one-to-one support, group work or specialist support in the local area. There are also useful websites which have resources for children affected by parental substance misuse. Children may also want support in understanding more about substance misuse. Many children report being frightened by their parent’s substance use, including worrying about them dying or being very unwell. Children do not necessarily have age-appropriate ways of finding out information about substance misuse. The signposting section in the full guide includes some resources which may be helpful to use when working with children and young people.
• Use holistic interventions: Interventions which work to help achieve best outcomes for children and families are:

• • holistic, providing support for different issues in family life;
  • integrated, with different professionals working collaboratively with the family and each other;
  • long term, as substance misuse is a relapsing and remitting issue which is unlikely to be resolved quickly and without ongoing support;
  • engaged with the whole family, with support available for the children as well as the adults in the family (McGovern et al, 2022).

What to read next

• Parental mental illness
• Increasing parental motivation and aspiration
• Parenting assessments

References

Houmoller, K, Bernays, S, Wilson, S & Rhodes, T (2011)
Juggling Harms: Coping with Parental Substance Misuse

Muir, C, Adams, E. A, Evans, V et al (2022)
‘A Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies Exploring Lived Experiences, Perceived Impact, and Coping Strategies of Children and Young People Whose Parents Use Substances‘

McGovern, R, Newham, J, Addison, M, Hickman, M, Kaner, E (2022)
‘The effectiveness of psychosocial interventions at reducing the frequency of alcohol and drug use in parents: findings of a Cochrane Review and meta-analyses‘

O’Connor, L, Forrester, D, Holland, S & Williams, A (2014)
‘Perspectives on children’s experiences in families with parental substance misuse and child protection interventions’

Templeton, L, Velleman, R (2007)
Understanding and modifying the impact of parents substance misuse on children

Generally, direct work can include:

• Exploring children’s memories of events.
• Helping children to process traumatic experiences.
• Undertaking life story work.
• Helping with social aspects of the child’s life.

Building a trusting relationship

Direct work with children and young people requires, along with materials and techniques to help them talk, specific social work skills that include:

• active listening;
• sensitivity;
• a ‘mentalised’ approach (the ability to understand we all have minds that contain intentions, thoughts and feelings that are different from others’).

Recognising the hard emotional work that a child will do in direct work sessions and taking steps to create a nurturing environment can be invaluable, and it is always worth asking those who are caring for the child what drinks and snacks he or she can have whilst in the room with you.

The main thing that children say is helpful in allowing adults to work with them is the quality of that adult’s capacity to listen actively to them and to hear the things they are not saying.

Equally important is that when adults tell the child that something will happen, it does. So, be mindful of the language you use as anything that sounds like a promise is just that to the child. Reliable, confident, kindly and attentive adults, who appear genuinely interested, are singled out as special people.

Setting the tone

A general principle of direct work is that it should create the conditions for the child to speak. This requires the social worker to be an active listener, not a busy ‘doer’.

The purpose of direct work is to provide secure conditions for the child or, to use Bion’s term, ‘containment’, so that the child can feel safe to express their feelings. It consists of quiet, sensitive observation, with the aim of occasionally lubricating the process.

Reactions to the child should be congruent with what they are saying and doing, including your tone of voice. Although it is sometimes appropriate to be bright and cheerful, you do not want to give the impression that every session will be fun, and sensitivity and good observations skills are important.

You should seek meaning in what the child is expressing – both verbally and non-verbally. This requires self-awareness so that the social worker can distinguish their own feelings from those of the child.

What to take to direct work sessions

You may not know much about a child before a visit other than basic details such as name and age. Also, it could be that only one visit will be undertaken.

Social workers need to know not only what has happened, but also its meaning for the child. They need to be able to enter the child’s inner world without necessarily having weeks to develop a relationship. Therefore, a general selection of toys and materials should be available for all visits. Consider bringing:

• a few (washable) felt-tip/coloured pencils;
• a small soft doll;
• a few toy animals;
• a few small cars;
• some paper.

Other ideas of activities to bring include:

• puppets;
• buttons;
• play people in family groups;
• farm animals;
• musical instruments;
• Play-Doh.

Many practitioners have books that they use for children in particular circumstances. Teams should be encouraged to share what they use and how they do so, perhaps building up a team resource bank.

Whilst there is a ‘right’ way to engage children, active listening being the most important attribute, there is no ‘right’ number of toys or games to have on hand.  Practitioners make choices as to what they offer and how they offer it.

It is always important, though, to reflect on your practice and see if it is giving you the best results you would expect. Watching a colleague at work with a child, team-based discussions on working methods and your own reading can refresh you and challenge you to work differently.

Some practitioners can engage the child using simple materials such as papers and pens, using their own experiences to draw out information. However, most children will engage more readily if provided with an activity as an introduction to the work and, for some, it is important that you do the task too.

Sitting beside, rather than face to face, with a child allows dialogue to develop and a sense of sharing.

The work you do with children may help them to understand themselves better; this is particularly true when practitioners use tools such as ecomaps and genograms.

Picking a location for direct work

Direct work should be carried out somewhere quiet, where the child feels safe, where you are not going to be interrupted and where the child knows how to get to the toilet. Children engaged in potentially stressful situations often need to go to the toilet at regular intervals, as a way of regulating their emotions as well as due to the physical desire to urinate.

In complex family situations, practitioners may want to see and meet the child in a neutral space, and some social workers plan with parents or carers to see the child at their school.

Although this has the advantage of being an environment free of family or parental influence, it brings the home situation into the school for the child which may be distressing for them. Perhaps a better neutral space for some children is a children’s centre, Cafcass office or other office space.

Using observation

Simply observing a child during free play is a good way of gaining insight into their usual ways of playing and interaction with other children and their toys. Using direct work in addition allows practitioners to gain a great understanding of a child’s lived experiences.

It is important to remember that children up to four years of age tend to think in egocentric and concrete ways, and care should be taken when interpreting their behaviours. You should seek advice when considering what their behaviour might mean and avoid making assumptions about what children can understand.

McLeod (2008) states that even pre-school children can have a mature understanding of an abstract concept, such as death, if it is relevant to their experience and when they have had it sensitively explained to them.

Developmental capacity

With older children, direct work may focus on mediation between them and their parents or carers. As with younger children, bear in mind they are conscious of non-verbal signs such as posture, tone of voice, gesture and facial expression.

Direct work with older children can include a focus on:

• their relationships;
• bullying;
• sexual identity;
• family disharmony;
• confidence;
• making and keeping friends,
• their life story.

Many unaccompanied asylum-seeking children may have experienced trauma in their country of origin and need help processing this. They may also need support managing feelings of loss or in establishing their identity in a new country without the support of their loved ones.

Practise using the activities beforehand and attempt to predict any questions that may arise. It will be important to think about what ‘expressing their view’ might mean to the child.

Cultural norms should be considered; for example, different cultures have proximity comfort zones and social norms about direct eye contact and hand gestures. Some cultures find it unacceptable to sit on the floor, and some may find it unacceptable for a child to name their parents.

In addition, adults from some cultures do not get involved in their children’s play, which could result in the child finding the social worker’s interest in completing direct work activities puzzling or uncomfortable.

If you have a Community Care Inform Children licence, log on to access the full guide and learn more about conducing confident direct work with children and young people.

What to read next

• Directory of direct work tools to use with children and young people
• Introduction to direct work with children and young people: a quick guide 
• Writing up direct work for case records and court reports

References

Bion, W, R (2023)
Learning from experience 

McLeod, A (2008)
Listening to Children: a practitioners guide

Safeguarding concerns about disabled children may arise for practitioners working in any type of children’s social work team. This includes front door referrals (of children who may or may not already be known to a local authority due to disability), as well in the course of assessing and providing support services for disabled children and their families. They can also arise when working with looked-after and adopted children.

It is therefore vital for all social workers to understand the specific challenges and issues involved in safeguarding disabled children and young people and those with special educational needs.

Applying professional curiosity

Professional curiosity is key in all safeguarding practice to help challenge assumptions and gain a greater understanding. The City of London and Hackney Safeguarding Children Partnership (CHSCP) provides helpful questions to consider in the context of safeguarding disabled children:

• What is the disability, special need or impairment that affects the child/young person?
• How does the disability or impairment affect the child on a day-to-day basis?
• How does the child communicate? If someone says the child can’t communicate, ask how the child indicates if they want something.
• How does the child show they are happy or unhappy?
• Are there or have there been concerns about parenting or abuse?
• Are there any concerns about the parenting of non-disabled children in the family?
• What support for the child and family is in place? What is working well and what interventions or support have not worked well?
• What resources are available to support the disabled child from within their own family network?
• Have both parents and/or anyone with parental responsibility been engaged in the assessment and/or intervention?
• Has a family group conference been considered?
• Have you reviewed the ‘local offer’ for children with additional needs or consulted with specialist workers/the disabled children’s service to ensure the child is accessing all the services they are entitled to (eg short breaks)?
• Are there differences of opinion about the experiences of the child in the professional network and, if so, what may this be about?
• Where there are multiple hypotheses about what might be happening for a child, does your plan reflect this and work to address all possible scenarios of concern?
• Would you consider the same safeguarding options if the child was not disabled?

Assessing support needs for disabled children in need

Under the Children Act 1989, local authorities are under a general duty to safeguard and promote the welfare of children in need.

Any child with a disability who meets the definition of a ‘disabled child’ under the Children Act 1989 is automatically a child in need. Children whose condition falls outside of this definition may still qualify for section 17 support – see the quick guide to definitions and duties in relation to disabled children. 

Local authorities have statutory duties to assess the needs of and provide services to disabled children. Assessments should be carried out in accordance with the statutory guidance, Working Together to Safeguard Children, with social workers taking a strengths-based, child-centred approach to inform decision making about support offered to the family in the child’s best interests (Department for Education, 2023).

Key considerations:

1. A good assessment takes a holistic, child-centred approach and is able to explore problems, beliefs, explanations, emotions, attachments and contextual factors within a family dynamic and to develop hypotheses (Dallos and Vetere, 2003).
2. For disabled children and their families, practitioners can benefit from having training and experience to develop the appropriate knowledge of conditions including autism, learning disabilities, and mental health needs (Clements and Aiello, 2021).
3. Practitioners need to ensure they are hearing the child, including that they are seen and spoken to alone when there are child protection concerns, with parents not used as interpreters (NSPCC, 2016).
4. A co-production approach can help increase trust between parents and professionals when discussing sensitive or difficult topics if safeguarding concerns emerge.

Recognising indicators of maltreatment

The DfE practice guidance Safeguarding Disabled Children (2009) includes a list of possible indicators of abuse or neglect:

• a bruise in a site that might not be of concern on a child who can walk, such as the shin, might be of concern on a non-mobile child;
• not getting enough help with feeding, leading to malnourishment;
• poor toileting arrangements;
• lack of stimulation;
• unjustified and/or excessive use of restraint;
• rough handling or extreme behaviour modification (eg deprivation of liquid, medication, food or clothing);
• unwillingness to try to learn a child’s means of communication;
• ill-fitting equipment (eg callipers, sleep boards, inappropriate splinting);
• misappropriation of a child’s finances;
• invasive procedures which are unnecessary or are carried out against the child’s will.

Responding to disclosures of abuse

When a child or young person does seek help, practitioners can support the process by taking time to prepare for difficult conversations, including by considering how to use activities to explore challenging topics and how technology can enable a child or young person to share their views.

Remember that when working with any child, the concept of ‘disclosure’ can be unhelpful. It suggests a one-off communication to make something known. This is often not how children communicate things we should be concerned about and does not recognise the responsibility of professionals to notice and observe words, signs, and behaviours, and respond in ways that allow more information to be shared.

This is true for all children, but particularly children with communication needs or who are non-verbal.

If you have a Community Care Inform Children licence, log on to access the full guide, and learn more about safeguarding disabled children.

References

Clements, L and Aiello, A L (2022)
Institutionalising parent carer blame

City of London & Hackney Safeguarding Children Partnership (CHSCP) (2024)
Safeguarding disabled children practice guidance 

Department for Education (2023)
Working Together to Safeguard Children 2023

Department for Education (2009)
Safeguarding disabled children: practice guidance

Dallos, R and Vetere, A (2003)
Working Systemically with Families: Formulation, Intervention and Evaluation.

NSPCC (2016)
Deaf and disabled children: learning from case reviews

Guidance

The full guide focusses on the duties of social workers carrying out age assessments and the practical steps you need to take before, during and after an age assessment with a young person. It draws on the Age Assessment Guidance published by the Association of Directors of Children’s Service (ADCS), the key document for social workers in England.

Social workers in Wales should use the Welsh government’s Unaccompanied Asylum Seeking Children: Age Assessment Toolkit (Welsh Government, 2021).

The assessing social worker role

If an age disputed young person presents, or is referred, to a local authority, managers need to allocate two qualified and registered social workers to undertake the assessment.

Both social workers must have experience of working with children and young people, and of undertaking assessments of children in need. At least one social worker should have experience of working with young asylum seekers and undertaking age assessments. Where this proves difficult, local authorities may wish to consider using an independent social worker with relevant experience or making arrangements with other local authorities.

The two social workers and manager need to discuss and agree roles in planning the assessment and conducting the interview(s) and schedule time for different aspects of the work, to ensure the assessment can be completed promptly.

Planning the assessment should consider the skills and experience of the workers involved. Tasks will include:

• gathering and reviewing any information already available;
• practical arrangements, such as booking a venue, an interpreter and an appropriate adult;
• planning the assessment interviews (perhaps including formulating some areas of discussion or questions);
• drafting the assessment report.

One social worker can ‘lead’ the interview(s) with the other mainly or solely taking notes. Check if there are local policies in place. The British Association of Social Workers (BASW) age assessment guide advises that if both workers take notes, it may be difficult for the lead social worker to observe changes in the young person’s expression or body posture.

Planning and preparing

Before the age assessment, consider:

1. Has the young person been informed that an age assessment is going to be conducted, and are arrangements in place to ensure they been given the information they need about the process and the support available to them?
2. Have arrangements been made for an appropriate adult and interpreter to assist with the interview(s)?
3. Has a suitable venue been arranged?
4. Has relevant country of origin and background information been collated and read by both assessing social workers?
5. Have arrangements been made to gather any relevant information available from other sources, including any documentation?
6. Is each social worker clear about their role in the interview(s)?

Conducting interviews

Throughout the interview(s), be alert to indicators of potential vulnerabilities in the young person that have not already come to light, such as human trafficking, mental health concerns and any other safeguarding issues. Take a child friendly and sensitive approach throughout, including checking that questions have been understood and offering breaks.

The following are essential requirements for starting an age assessment interview:

1. Two registered social workers must be present. The same social workers should be present for all interviews.
2. Ensure that the young person is fit to be interviewed (ie check on their welfare and wellbeing).
3. The purpose of the interview(s), possible outcomes, the roles of professionals and how the information may be shared must be explained to the young person.
4. The explanation needs to include that the role of the appropriate adult is to support the young person, and that the interpreter’s role is to translate communication, not provide advice or represent the child.
5. Ensure that the young person understands the interpreter (eg do they speak the same dialect?) and are comfortable with them.
6. Record whether and how the young person has indicated that they understand the purpose of the assessment, the interpreter and the role of the appropriate adult.

Questioning the young person

Simple, open-ended questions should generally be used, and you should ensure that questions are not confusing, repetitive or oppressive. Questions should cover issues related to the young person’s social history, family background and development.  The purpose is to develop a picture of the young person’s life and experiences, not to catch them in a “lie”.

The young person should be asked their age and date of birth and given the opportunity to explain how they know their age and date of birth.

British Association of Social Workers (BASW) guidance (2023) suggests asking:

• “Tell me about your family.”
• “Tell me about your time at school.”
• “Tell me about your journey to the UK. Were you unwell on the journey? Were you hurt or injured in any way?”
• “How long did your journey take? When did you leave?”

Questions like these allow the young person to provide a detailed narrative, support an initial gathering of information of their needs (eg around education and health), and allow you to explore more focused age assessment questions.

Analysing the information

The following ADCS guidance outlines what you should consider when analysing the information (2015):

• The statements of the child or young person.
• Country of origin information.
• The child or young person’s individual history and experiences, particularly any traumatic events.
• The child or young person’s cultural background, education level, gender, maturity, developmental stage and behaviours.
• The views and opinions of other professionals (eg key workers or foster carers, educators, medical professionals);
• Any medical evidence (eg psychological reports).
• The documentation presented: are you able to verify the documents through channels that do not put the child or young person at risk? It should be noted that if a child or young person’s document is assessed to be false, this does not necessarily mean that they are lying about their age.
• The weight given to each piece of information collected. Not all information needs to be given the same weight, and the evidence will need to be considered on a case-by-case basis. You should avoid placing too much weight on physical appearance and demeanour.

Clarifying information/’minded to’ meetings

Prior to the final decision, the social workers should meet with the young person to discuss the factors that led to their opinion. Again, the appropriate adult and interpreter should be present.

If the conclusion is that they are not a child, the young person should be given the opportunity to respond to all the points that have led to that conclusion.

The meeting should also be used to check whether any information has been misunderstood, misinterpreted or missed. If the young person offers any further information or explanation, this should be considered before the final decision is made.

The BASW guide refers to these as ‘minded to’ meetings. As well as demonstrating openness to new information, these are important legally, “since judicial review claims on age assessment have been won simply because the social worker failed to conduct a ‘minded to’ meeting” (BASW, 2023).

It is important to document each part of the process and the reasoning behind decisions and conclusions, including the views of others and any differences of opinion.

Following a ‘minded to’ meeting and the consideration of any further information, a final decision can be made.

If you have a Community Care Inform Children licence, log on to access the full guide and learn more about carrying out age assessments.  

References

Association of Directors of Children’s Services (ADCS) (2015)
Age Assessment Guidance: Guidance to assist social workers and their managers in undertaking age assessments in England 

British Association of Social Workers (BASW) (2023)
Age Assessment: A Practice Guide

The use of technology

Technology can be used to both directly sexually exploit children and to facilitate offline child sexual exploitation (CSE). Technological developments have provided perpetrators of CSE with further opportunities to access children, network and share information with other perpetrators and develop additional identities to facilitate their exploitation of children (Lapsia, 2024).

Forms of exploitation facilitated by technology include children being forced to:

• send or post sexually explicit images of themselves;
• take part in sexual activities via webcam or smartphone;
• have sexual conversations by text or phone;
• receive pictures or videos they do not want to see (Farrer & Co, 2023).

How offenders access CSA material

With the use of technology and fast-growing online platforms, the spreading of child sexual abuse (CSA) material has grown exponentially, placing more children at risk of online sexual abuse and exploitation.

The distressing ease of accessing CSA material online was highlighted by a European study that surveyed over 30,000 active online CSA material offenders. Findings indicated that:

• offenders view and share CSA material on popular social media and encrypted messaging apps;
• perpetrators seek contact with children on social media, encrypted messaging apps and online games (Lapsia, 2024).

Online child sexual extortion

‘Sextortion’, or online child sexual extortion, is a form of online blackmail that involves the threat of sharing nude or semi-nude images or videos to extort money or force someone to do something against their will (NSPCC, 2024).

Reports of sextortion to the Internet Watch Foundation increased eightfold between 2023 and 2024. The majority of the reports were from boys who were being blackmailed after being coerced into sharing explicit images which criminals threatened to send to their contacts (Internet Watch Foundation, 2024).

Self-generated child sexual abuse images

There has been a reported increase in self-generated child sexual abuse images (CSAM) (OFCOM, 2024a). Although data indicates that this is more prevalent amongst teenagers, we must also consider the fact that there is an increase in the number of children under 10 using social media.

According to OFCOM (2024b), overall use of social media sites or apps among all five to seven-year-olds increased from 2023-24 from 30% to 38% of the group, with WhatsApp (29% to 37%), TikTok (25% to 30%), Instagram (14% to 22%) and Discord (2% to 4%) seeing particular growth.

Other forms of online exploitation

Other ways in which technology can be used to sexually exploit children include:

• harassment and bullying through text messaging;
• using threats to share images to coerce children and young people into ongoing sexual exploitation;
• purchasing mobile phones for children and young people and sharing their numbers among groups or gang members;
• random contact with children and young people via social networking sites;
• using ‘friends’ lists on networking sites of children and young people to target additional children and young people;
• viewing of pornography and discussing it during sexual assaults;
• posting images of children and young people with rival gang members to invite sexual assault as punishment;
• filming and distributing incidents of rape (College of Policing, 2021; Berelowitz et al 2012).

Sexting

Sexting, defined as ‘the use of technology to share personal sexual content’ (UK Safer Internet Centre), can, for example, lead to content being broadcast to groups using online spaces or shared via messaging systems.

In March 2024, the UK Council for Internet Safety updated the Sharing nudes and semi-nudes: advice for education settings working with children and young people guidance.

The guidelines advise education settings on when they should report incidents of sexting to the police or children’s social care, taking into account factors such as age, use of coercion and whether or not those involved have previously been involved in sexting. The guidance aims to prevent children from being victims and perpetrators of crime and to work closely with schools and families to set in place early intervention (NSPCC, 2024).

Challenges in protecting children

There are several challenges for both professionals and parents and carers in protecting children from harm through technology.

As noted by Palmer (2015), some children do not display obvious indicators that they are being sexually exploited or the vulnerabilities often linked to CSE.

Access to technology has facilitated instant connectivity and accessibility, and perceptions of anonymity and online experiences can act as a disinhibitor where children may say and do things they are unlikely to do offline (Palmer, 2015).

In addition, the time between initial contact and offending behaviour can be extremely short and is characterised by rapid escalation to threats and intimidation (CEOP, 2013).

The Children’s Society outlines certain changes in a child’s behaviour that may indicate online grooming and exploitation. These include:

• talking about older or new friends they’ve met online;
• talking about gifts or money they have received online;
• becoming withdrawn and secretive;
• having a new phone or more than one phone;
• receiving a large number of calls or messages;
• being worried about being away from their phone (Children’s Society, 2024).

If you have a Community Care Inform Children licence, log on to access the full guide and learn more about forms of child sexual exploitation.

References

Berelowitz S, Firmin C, Edwards G and Gulyurtlu S (2012)
“I thought I was the only one. The only one in the world”: The Office of the Children’s Commissioner’s Inquiry into Child Sexual Exploitation in Gangs and Groups Interim Report

Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre (2013)
Threat Assessment of Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse

College of Policing (2021)
Responding to child sexual exploitation

Farrer & Co (2023)
Addressing child-on-child abuse: a resource for schools and colleges

Internet Watch Foundation (2024)
Teenage boys targeted as hotline sees ‘heartbreaking’ increase in child ‘sextortion’ reports

Lapsia (2024)
Tech platforms used by online child sexual abuse offenders

NSPCC (2024)
Young people’s experiences of online sexual extortion or ‘sextortion’. London: NSPCC.

OFCOM (2024a)
Tackling child sexual abuse under the online safety regime 

OFCOM (2024b)
A window into young children’s online worlds

Palmer T (2015)
Digital Dangers: The impact of technology on the sexual abuse and exploitation of children and young people 

The Children’s Society (2024)
Promoting online safety for children

UK Council for Internet Safety (2024)
Sharing nudes and semi-nudes: advice for education settings working with children and young people

What is life story work?

Life story work is a “biographical narrative approach used within health and social care settings that offers individuals an opportunity to talk and think about their lived experiences” (Kontomichalos-Eyre, Lake & McGillivray, 2003).

Life story work is most commonly associated with adoption. It is a requirement set out in law and statutory guidance for adopted children to have life story books, and, historically, research has focused on its role in adoption. However, life story work can also make a significant positive difference to the lives of children in care.

One reason is that addressing the need for children to feel safe is an essential goal of the work. Research by Staines and Selwyn (2020) indicated that many children expressed confusion about why they were in care, resulting in an uneasy feeling and desire for more information.

When children feel ‘unsettled’

Children may exhibit behaviours because of feeling ‘unsettled’, and often professionals, parents or carers may assume these are a result of ‘something wrong’ with the child.

For example, children may appear irritable, tense, restless or unable to sit still, or they may lack concentration and be easily distracted.

Practitioners should consider behaviours exhibited by children in care in the context of separation, loss, developmental trauma and/or severe adversity rather than focusing on them as symptoms of various diagnoses.

A collective responsibility

An important approach to life story work is to ensure there is sufficient planning. This is not only down to the social work practitioner; you should involve practitioners within the wider network who are supporting the child.

It is a collective responsibility for everyone involved in the young person’s life. Consider how you can best utilise the skills of everyone involved.

Reaching out to birth families is helpful as well, as family networking and conferencing can help to answer questions the child may have, such as, ‘What hospital was I born in?’, or, ‘How did I weigh?’.

Having the answers to these questions will help the child understand their past and will help to form their identity.

It is important to use spaces that are already available to you such as reflective spaces, supervision and team meetings. First-hand information from practice that is shared during group supervision, for example, can be an effective way of receiving peer support and can help with planning and sharing of resources.

Involving carers

Encourage caregivers to record the memories and moments of the child’s time in their care.

This helps ensure that children will not leave their care with limited memories of the parts of their lives while being in care and helps the child understand their experiences.

Positive therapeutic relationship

Life story work is a relational therapeutic intervention that helps children to heal. Studies have shown that absence of life story work can adversely affect a child’s identify formation.

Identity theory in general explains that everyone finds themselves through relationships, experiences and memories; and if this is not possible then people often feel ‘lost’ and uneasy. This is often linked to low self-esteem and anxiety, and what is termed ‘external locus of control’.

If children and young people have access to life story work, then this helps to build a good sense of their identity, which adds to their internal locus of control and a more positive mindset.

Increasing trust and self-esteem

This is because life story work can help ‘fill gaps’ that children and young people may have about past experiences, which can help children to feel more optimistic about the future and increase self-esteem.

It can help to form connections with others as well, increasing the trust children have in others and can improve placement stability by reducing relational conflict within placements.

Practitioners can try to make links and connections between the child’s experiences and the current anxiety, anger or restlessness they may be experiencing. This helps to increase the child’s resilience, by highlighting their capacity to grow and change despite experiencing negative events.

Although information about the child’s past can cause negative emotions, it is better to help the child share and understand their past to make sense of what they experienced and connect parts of their lives.

If you have a Community Care Inform Children licence, log on to access the recorded webinar and learn more about undertaking life story work.

References

Kontomichalos-Eyre, S, Lake, A & McGillivray, J (2023)
‘Life story work for children and youth in out of home care: a systematic review and synthesis if qualitative studies’
Children and Youth Services Review, 144, Elsevier

Staines J & Selwyn J (2020)
‘”I wish someone would explain why I am in care”: The impact of children and young people’s lack of understanding of why they are in out-of-home care on their well-being and felt security’
Child & Family Social Work, 25 (1), Wiley

This article presents a few key pieces of advice from Community Care Inform Children’s guide to critical reflection. The full guide explores what critical reflection entails and outlines three models of critical reflection that practitioners can apply to their practice. The full guide also provides an example critical reflection based on a fictionalised child and family assessment and aims to increase practitioners’ confidence in using critical reflection. Community Care Inform Children subscribers can access the full guide here.

The guide was written by David Wilkins, a reader and programme director for the MA social work programme at Cardiff University.

What is critical reflection?

Critical reflection is a key way that social workers continue to learn and develop throughout their careers. Reflection means reviewing our experiences and thinking about how we could make changes in the future. Critical reflection involves a more in-depth process of thinking about the conditions that shape our actions and how we feel about our actions.

In other words, it means reflecting on our reflections. To help explore how this works, it is worth first considering two key issues: frames of reference and the influence of emotions.

Frames of reference

We all have ‘frames of reference’ that we practise within, and which inform, and constrain, how we think about our practise (and our thinking about our thinking about our practice).

A frame of reference consists of all our internalised “cultural codes, social norms, ideologies and language games” (Mezirow, 1998, page 70). It includes our assumptions and expectations about the social world, about the people we work with and about ourselves.

A key aspect of critical reflection is to identify our own taken-for-granted frames of reference and think about the “sources, nature, and consequences of this received wisdom” (Mezirow, 1998, page 70). By so doing, we can understand, scrutinise and challenge how these beliefs affect our actions.

The influence of emotions

Especially in social work settings, our ability to be critically reflective can be inhibited by our emotional reactions. We all prefer to feel comfortable rather than uncomfortable, and reflecting on difficult and traumatic experiences often means reliving the emotions involved.

Questioning our assumptions and those of others is also liable to trigger an emotional response.

For these reasons, meaningful critical reflection via supervision and/or peer support from colleagues, or through self-guided reflective writing, is vital.

Habits of mind for critical reflection

There are two distinct outcomes from any process of learning. The more obvious is that we increase our knowledge or level of understanding. For example, children learning multiplication will start to remember the answer to questions such as 9 x 8 and 5 x 7.

However, there is a more fundamental component to learning than this – referred to as ‘habits of mind’. This means how you develop as a learner, rather than how you increase your knowledge and understanding of the world.

For example, when children are presented with a difficult mathematical problem, they are not learning the answer to the specific problem. Rather, they are learning habits of mind, such as perseverance, focus and confidence in their ability (Murray, 2016).

The foundational habits of mind for critical reflection include:

1. Embracing not-knowing: Certainty is the opposite of critical reflection; if you know already, then you do not need to be curious. Sit with uncertainty and seek out doubt.
2. Asking ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions about your beliefs: If – or especially when – we feel certain in our beliefs, critical reflection invites us to ask ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions, for example, ‘how do I know and why do I feel certain?’.
3. Avoiding premature problem-solving: The aim of critical reflection is not to solve a specific problem; the aim is to think (and rethink) more broadly about practice. While there is a place for action planning, this happens at the end – or after – the process of critical reflection.
4. Being prepared to try new things: Not all critical reflections need to result in changes to practice, as the overall aim is to learn and develop. This means being open to new ideas and ways of doing things, and it means testing existing ways of thinking and doing – and being open-minded enough to accept when they do not work as intended or expected.
5. Considering point-of-view primacy: Everyone has a point of view, but some are taken more seriously than others. Critical reflection challenges us to think about whose point of view is being taken seriously and whose point of view is being overlooked, and why this is.
6. Imagining alternatives: When reflecting on any experience, it is always possible to say you could have done things differently. Critical reflection involves imagining plausible alternatives, not simply in the sense of asking what you could have done differently, but also probing why and how you could have done things differently, and with what possible consequences.

You will probably have several of these ‘habits of mind’ already, if not all of them. The point is that they can be practised and developed – and that one of the key outcomes of critical reflection is to hone exactly these ways of thinking and learning.

MacLean’s Weather Model

The weather model was developed by Maclean (2016), in collaboration with social work students. It uses a series of weather metaphors to invite and structure reflection. These include:

• Sunshine – What went well about the event or experience? What was successful?
• Rain – What did not go well? What was challenging?
• Lightening – What surprised you?
• Fog – What did you not understand? What are you not feeling sure of?
• Wind – Did anything happen to throw you off course during the event or experience?
• Storm – Was there any conflict during the event or experience? If so, what caused it and how did you respond?
• Thunder – How did other people’s views impact on your practice?

The full guide explores two other models of critical reflection: Driscoll’s ‘so what?’ model and Kolb’s experiential learning cycle and offers guidance on writing critical reflections. The guide also provides an example of an assessment and a critical reflection. If you have a Community Care Inform Children licence, log on to read the full guide.

References

Maclean, S (2016)
A new model for social work reflection: whatever the weather

Mezirow, J (1998)
Transformative learning and social action: A response to Inglis

Murray, J (2016)
Skills development, habits of mind, and the spiral curriculum: A dialectical approach to undergraduate general education curriculum mapping

What is motivational interviewing? 

Motivational interviewing can be defined as a particular way of talking with people about change and growth to strengthen their own motivation and commitment. It was first developed by William Miller (1983) while working in the field of substance misuse, but very quickly its relevance to a wide variety of fields resulted in its application in many countries across the world and in diverse settings and cultures.

Motivational interviewing focuses on the here and now; practitioners look at how the person is feeling and behaving at that moment and notice the difference between this and how the person would like to feel and behave.

Social work practitioners in many scenarios, from safeguarding children to working with older adults with acute and chronic illness, have used the approach. Motivational interviewing has been used with young people in schools and can be applied to direct work with children and families, such as in addressing concerns about domestic abuse, substance misuse and general behaviour change.

Four tasks of motivational interviewing 

1. Engaging: This process focuses on building a relationship between the practitioner and the individual. The counselling skills of open questioning, affirming, reflective listening and summarising (known as OARS) begin in the engaging process and continue throughout the whole approach. The person needs to be engaged with the practitioner and their approach before the other tasks can occur. First impressions are important and appropriate body language and eye contact are essential. There are some key ‘traps’ to avoid so that engagement can happen. For example, the ‘assessment trap’ describes the possibility that during the practitioners’ process of gathering information at the initial meeting, the practitioner may ask too many questions and take on an ‘assessor’ role. The practitioner should avoid making the conversation feel like an interrogation. Other ‘traps’ to avoid are explained in the full guide. 

2. Focusing: While it is important for practitioners to have an aim and agenda for what they want to address, it is equally important to include issues that the person would like to focus on. This creates a collaborative partnership rather than a hierarchical exchange. It also helps in creating a more relaxed setting and can reduce the level of defensiveness, because the person has a sense of empowerment and control. It is likely that during motivational interviewing you will need to provide information and advice; a helpful structure is to ask, offer, ask. For example:

Ask

• “What things have you tried in the past?”
• “What options have other people tried that you are aware of?”

Offer

• “Is it okay with you if I run through a couple of ideas?”
• “Evidence suggests…” “Research shows….”.

Ask

• “Which one will you think about/try/do?”

More examples are included in the full guide. 

3. Evoking: Practitioners should use an interviewing style in their dialogues, which enables the person to share their thoughts, feelings and opinions. There are several skills the practitioner can use to attempt to draw out more ‘change talk’ (see below for the definition).

What is the book about?

This book is a memoir based on author Ashley John-Baptiste’s childhood experiences growing up in care. Throughout the book, Ashley, who is now a BBC journalist, reflects on his childhood and adolescence as a looked-after child, recounting times of hardship, trauma and confusion with such detail and introspection that you can’t help but be tremendously moved.

The take-home messages

Ashley describes specific encounters with social care professionals, teachers, foster carers and friends, reflecting on how specific words and moments in interactions have forever imprinted in his memory. He demonstrates the power that words – what is said and what is left unsaid – can have on someone throughout life.

He covers complicated topics such as identity, relationships and intergenerational care and the impact that foster care, and recurring placement moves, have on a child. Despite the harshness of his experience in the UK foster care system, the extraordinary resilience he has showcased is inspiring.

A must-read for social care practitioners

Having worked as a social worker, I believe this book will be tremendously helpful for other social care professionals, as it provides insight into the impact our role can have on a child’s life. Ashley’s reflections on past social work interactions demonstrate the need to have hope and motivation for any child in care and to look beyond the ‘professional role’ as one with authority to simply make big decisions.

Rather, he shows us the importance of helping a child find their voice and identity by listening to what they need, and of continuously checking in, as what may appear to be a ‘positive placement’ to professionals may not be reflective of the child’s experiences day-to-day. As social workers, we must try our best to provide opportunities and encouragement for a child in care to find success.

What else should I know?

The book challenges us to reflect on our own childhoods and relationships, and how we have come to relate to others and build trusting, reciprocal relationships. At times the book is quite sad, given the visceral, honest accounts of life in care. However, it is important to understand this side of care, which most of us will never experience, and the importance and impact of key individuals in providing light during periods of darkness.

• Looked After: A Childhood in Care – A memoir by Ashley John-Baptiste ★★★★
• Hodder & Stoughton
• ISBN: 9781399711920
• £14.99

The aim and purpose of court reports 

The primary aim of a court report should always be to advise the court on how best to help the child.

The first step is to identify the purpose of the report – for example, making recommendations about family contact arrangements, seeking care orders, or putting forward adoption as the best plan for a child.

It is important to apply an analytical approach to the report; making sure the recommendations are comprehensive, clear and concise.

When writing your statement, you need to consider the audience. Formally, you are writing a report for the court, but your statement will also be read by the other parties involved (frequently, parents, and, in some instances, the child).

The statement should:

• identify the issue or issues to be resolved;
• limit the need for cross-examination (because you will have already addressed the most important questions).

Refer to research evidence and academic theory within the statement when this would aid your analysis. You should be able to explain what the research or theory means in your own words and how it applies to the child or family.

Always include references to credible sources if referencing research or an academic theory.

Key sections of a court statement

The following is from the social work evidence template (SWET), developed by the Association of Directors of Children’s Services and Cafcass. There is no single ‘way’ to complete a court statement, although many good statements will contain similar features.

The social work evidence template contains eight substantive sections:

1. Which orders are being sought and why? Explain why they are necessary to safeguard the child, and ‘why now’. Include a summary of work undertaken with the family so far, and why this is no longer sufficient to keep the child safe.
2. Family network. Include details of the child, family members and other people with whom the child has significant relationships (eg close family friends).
3. Child impact analysis. Reference the welfare checklist, and describe and analyse the child’s day-to-day experiences, needs, wishes and feelings, and risk and protective factors. Include an analysis of harm and the risk of future harm as well.
4. Parenting capability. Demonstrate an analysis of each parent’s capability to meet the child’s needs. This should include the ways that the parent has met the child’s needs in the past, along with evidence that they have not or cannot meet the child’s needs now or in the future, and how these gaps could be addressed (or why they cannot be). Outline what support you think is needed and how this could or should be provided.
5. Wider family capability. In this section, you should show that you have made every reasonable effort to identify and explore alternative care options for the child, with reference to all the adults mentioned in section two. Explain how wider family and friends have been identified as potential carers, including a summary of anyone who has been ruled out and why. Include the outcome of any completed viability assessments as well.
6. The proposed (interim) care plan and analysis of the realistic option. In this part of the statement, you should explain your proposed care plan for the child. Depending on local policies and procedures, you may need to submit a separate care plan document. To aid the court, you need to identify one preferred option, while also showing you have considered other options. Using this kind of ‘balance sheet’ approach is in accordance with prominent case law (Re B (A Child) [2013] UKSC 33 and Re B-S (Children) [2013] EWCA Civ 1146).
7. Plan for family time (‘contact’). Local authorities have legal duties to allow children to have ‘reasonable’ contact with parents and any other guardians or anyone with parental responsibility, and people that the child may have lived with previously under a residence order or High Court order. This section should also consider contact plans with siblings where appropriate.
8. Social work chronology. You will need to produce a chronology that covers the previous two years. The primary requirement is a list of significant events. ‘Significant events’ will vary depending on each family and child. It is helpful to ask yourself, ‘How does this add to the court’s understanding of the child and family?’, before identifying events within the chronology.

The full guide on writing court reports includes more information on what to include and how to write clearly and analytically, and provides completed examples of each section of the social work evidence template. If you have a Community Care Inform Children licence, log on to read the full guide.